Folsom Culture Ancient Bison Hunters in North American

Folsom is the name given to the archaeological sites and isolated finds that are associated with early Paleoindian hunter-gatherers of the Great Plains, Rocky Mountains and American Southwest in North America, between about 13,000-11,900 calendar years ago (cal BP). Folsom as a technology is believed to have developed out of Clovis mammoth hunting strategies in North America, which lasted dated between 13.3-12.8 cal BP. Folsom sites are differentiated from other Paleoindian hunter-gatherer groups such as Clovis by a specific and distinctive stone tool-making technology. Folsom technology refers to projectile points made with a channel flake down the center on one or both sides, and the lack of a robust blade technology. Clovis people were primarily, but not entirely mammoth hunters, an economy that was much more wide-spread than Folsom, and scholars argue that when the mammoth died off at the beginning of the Younger Dryas period, people in the southern Plains developed a new technology to exploit buffalo: Folsom. Folsom Technology A different technology was required because buffalo (or more properly, bison (Bison antiquus))  are faster and weigh much less than elephants (Mammuthus columbi. Extinct forms of adult buffalo weighed in at about 900 kilograms or 1,000 pounds, while elephants reached 8,000 kg (17,600 lbs). In general terms (Buchanan et al. 2011), the size of a projectile point is associated with the  size of the animal killed: points found at bison kill sites are smaller, lighter and a different shape than those found at mammoth kill sites. Like Clovis points, Folsom points are lanceolate or lozenge-shaped. Like Clovis points, Folsom were not arrow or spear points but were likely attached to darts and delivered by atlatl throwing sticks. But the main diagnostic feature of Folsom points is the channel flute, a technology that sends flintknappers and regular archaeologists alike (including me) into flights of rapturous admiration. Experimental archaeology indicates that Folsom projectile points were highly effective. Hunzicker (2008) ran experimental archaeology tests and found that nearly 75% of accurate shots penetrated deep into bovine carcasses despite rib impact. Point replicas used in these experiments sustained minor or no damage, surviving unimpaired for an average of 4.6 shots per point. Most of the  damage was restricted to the tip, where it could be resharpened: and the archaeological record shows that resharpening of Folsom points was practiced. Channel Flakes and Fluting Legions of archaeologists have investigated the making and sharpening of such tools, including blade length and width, selected source material (Edwards Chert and Knife River Flint) and how and why the points were manufactured and fluted. These legions conclude that the Folsom lanceolate formed points were incredibly well made to start with, but the flintknapper risked the entire project to remove a channel flake for the length of the point on both sides, resulting in a remarkably thin profile. A channel flake is removed by a single very carefully placed blow at the right location and if it misses, the point shatters. Some archaeologists, such as McDonald, believe that making the flute was such a dangerous and unnecessarily high-risk behavior that it must have had a socio-cultural role in the communities. Contemporaneous Goshen points are basically Folsom points without the fluting, and they seem to be just as successful at killing prey. Folsom Economies Folsom bison hunter-gatherers lived in small highly mobile groups, traveling large areas of land during their seasonal round. To be successful at living on bison, you have to follow the migration patterns of the herds throughout the plains. Evidence that they did that is the presence of lithic materials transported up to 900 kilometers (560 miles) from their source areas. Two models of mobility have been suggested for Folsom, but Folsom people probably practiced both in different places at different times of the year. The first is a very high degree of residential mobility, where the entire band moved following the bison. The second model is that of reduced mobility, in which the band would settle down near predictable resources (lithic raw materials, wood, potable water, small game, and plants) and just send out hunting groups. The Mountaineer Folsom site, located on a mesa-top in Colorado, contained the remains of a rare house associated with Folsom, built of upright poles made of aspen trees set in a tipi-fashion with plant material and daub used to fill the gaps. Slabs of rock were used to anchor the base and lower walls. Some Folsom Sites Texas: Chispa Creek, Debra L. Friedkin, Hot Tubb, Lake Theo, Lipscomb, Lubbock Lake, Scharbauer, Shifting SandsNew Mexico: Blackwater Draw, Folsom, Rio RanchoOklahoma: Cooper, Jake Bluff, WaughColorado: Barger Gulch, Stewarts Cattle Guard, Lindenmeier, Linger, Mountaineer, ReddinWyoming: Agate Basin, Carter/Kerr-McGee, Hanson, Hell Gap, Rattlesnake PassMontana: Indian CreekNorth Dakota: Big Black, Bobtail Wolf, Lake Ilo The Folsom type site is a bison kill site, in Wild Horse Arroyo near the town of the Folsom, New Mexico. It was famously discovered in 1908 by the African-American cowboy George McJunkins, although stories vary. Folsom was excavated in the 1920s by Jesse Figgins and reinvestigated in the 1990s by Southern Methodist University, led by David Meltzer. The site has evidence that 32 bison were trapped and killed at Folsom; radiocarbon dates on the bones indicated an average of 10,500 RCYBP. Sources Andrews BN, Labelle JM, and Seebach JD. 2008. Spatial Variability in the Folsom Archaeological Record: A Multi-Scalar Approach. American Antiquity 73(3):464-490. Ballenger JAM, Holliday VT, Kowler AL, Reitze WT, Prasciunas MM, Shane Miller D, and Windingstad JD. 2011. Evidence for Younger Dryas global climate oscillation and human response in the American Southwest. Quaternary International 242(2):502-519. Bamforth DB. 2011. Origin Stories, Archaeological Evidence, and Postclovis Paleoindian Bison Hunting on the Great Plains. American Antiquity 71(1):24-40. Bement L, and Carter B. 2010. Jake Bluff: Clovis Bison Hunting on the Southern Plains of North America. American Antiquity  75(4):907-933. Buchanan B. 2006. An analysis of Folsom projectile point resharpening using quantitative comparisons of form and allometry. Journal of Archaeological Science 33(2):185-199. Buchanan B, Collard M, Hamilton MJ, and O’Brien MJ. 2011. Points and prey: a quantitative test of the hypothesis that prey size influences early Paleoindian projectile point form. Journal of Archaeological Science 38(4):852-864. Hunzicker DA. 2008. Folsom Projectile Technology: An Experiment in Design, Effectiveness Plains Anthropologist 53(207):291-311.and Efficiency. Lyman RL. 2015. Location and Position in Archaeology: Revisiting the Original Association of a Folsom Point with Bison Ribs. American Antiquity 80(4):732-744. MacDonald DH. 2010. The Evolution of Folsom Fluting. Plains Anthropologist 55(213):39-54. Stiger M. 2006. A Folsom structure in the Colorado mountains. American Antiquity 71:321-352.

Did Television Turn People Into Watchers, Not Doers

Did Television Turn People Into Watchers, Not Doers? With the invention of television our life became more fun. We received a great way of entertainment, and now in order to relax, we just have to push a button and find a program that is the most interesting for us. We can choose a show most appropriate for our current mood, whether it is curious, sad, fun, or any other. But let us consider the habits that television has developed in us. TV has certainly made many people lazier. Before its invention people knew that they had to go in for some activity to have fun. But now they just have to take a sit and switch on the TV set. Lack of physical activities is also a result of coach-potato lifestyle, which is conditioned by television. Besides, due to such lifestyles different health disorders may occur. Almost all the people realize the threats related to constant TV watching, but the other risks may not be obvious to everyone. One of them is that TV urges us to watch other people’s lives, and some people can get so involved in some program that they forget to manage their own life. They just watch, doing nothing. And that is not the way things should be. People have to live in action. Their body and mind depend on it. If a person is eager only to watch TV, he/she is not acting, which is contradictory to the very human existence. Everyone has to decide what role TV will play in his/her life and it is highly recommended to limit its influence as much as possible. We have only one life and watching other people’s lives is not the best way of spending it.

Destroying the Rain Forests Human effects on Natures Essay

Destroying the Rain Forests: Human effects on Natures The rain forests are one of the most unique places on the planet earth. They are home to several thousand species of animals that live no where else in the world1. They are also one of the primary sources of oxygegn of the world. One cannot even begin to describe the sheer beauty of the rain forests. However, the interaction of man with these marvels of nature has had a negative effect. Through agriculture, societal development and the search for raw materials mankind is destroying these marvels of nature. The rain forests are a display of the negative effects of humans on nature. One of the biggest destroyers of the rainforest is farming. Farmers in areas inhabited by the†¦show more content†¦They are being converted from forest into villages, towns and cities. These areas are basically irrecoverable and will probably never be capable of being turned back into rain forests6. These cities also lead to more destruction of the rain forests. With the population growing and more and more cities developing, people are using up natural resources at an astounding rate. In order to combat this humans are forced to find new sources for these resources. Humans have hardly explored the rain forests because they have not been really open to human exposure7. This gives them reason to believe that they can find natural resources there so they are searching them and destroying the ecosystems there at the same time. The search for resources along with the destruction of the rain forests for agriculture and for living space is having negative effects on the rain forest and the environment. Humans are having a negative effect on the environment by destroying the rainforests. By destroying the rainforests, they are destroying the source of over sixty percent of the earths precious oxygen8. This may surprise some people because we are still breathing but if the destruction continues we will be breathing in a lot less oxygen and a lot more impurities like excess carbon dioxide and other pollutants9. The rainforest do not only produce oxygen but they also reduce global warming10. When humans breathe, they exhale carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is theShow MoreRelatedStop The Destruction of the Rainforest Essay1540 Words   |  7 PagesThe destruction of the Rain Forest should be prohibited. Planet Earth is accelerating at an alarming rate; moving towards its own self-destruction. What we learned in high school taught us the importance of converting carbon dioxide into oxygen. Without this conversion process, life as we know it today could possibly cease to exist. The rainforest provides much needed oxygen for the planet. Numerous rainforests exist around the globe. The largest rain forest is in Brazil. ThisRead MoreDeforestation Essay1175 Words   |  5 Pagesvery difficult to breathe. This planet will have nothing to protect people from the sun, nothing to slowdown the forces of the wind, and nothing to anchor topsoil from eroding in the rain. The conditions at this imaginary planet can become our reality on earth if we do not stop deforestation. There are many negative effects of deforestation. However, for the scope of this paper, I will discuss three primary issues on how deforestation harms our environment. I will begin this paper with a brief look atRead MoreDeforestation In The Amazon Rainforest Essay970 Words   |  4 PagesIntroduction: Deforestation is the clearing of a forest and/or cutting down of trees for human benefits such as agriculture, wood exports, etc. Deforestation is the cause of numerous environmental impacts such as habitat loss, flooding and soil erosion. It can also cause climate change, by reducing the amount of rainfall and changing the amount of sunlight reflected from Earth’s surface and increases the risk of forest . Tree growth is important for biodiversity because they absorb carbon dioxideRead MoreEffects in our Environment and a Christian’s Role in Preserving and Restoring it1088 Words   |  5 Pagesthe industrial era, humans have contributed to a wide range of negative affects concerning the environment, and the current condition of our environment. Pollution alone contributes to global warming and public health warning; while deforestation affects our climate, ecological system, and water table cycle. Research that will be provided in this essay will reveal how pollution and deforestation have many negative impacts on our environment significantly; by identifying effects on the environmentRead MoreDeforestation : A Global Problem1624 Words   |  7 Pagesto be stopped. Deforestation is clearing the earth’s forest in order to make room for things like buildings roads and other man made structures. I chose to investigate more into the topic of deforestation as there is a constant need for more money and land, as it is destroying and causing huge amounts of damage. Throughout my argument I will be answering questions such as, what is deforestation, what are the pros and cons and what are the effects of deforestation. Overall I will prove why all of myRead MoreInvestigation of the Issue of Deforestation Essay1240 Words   |  5 Pagesoften replace rain forest to grow beef for the world market. Commercial logging is another common form of deforestation, cutting trees for sale as timber or pulp. Logging can occur selectively-where only the economically valuable species are cut-or by clear cutting, where all the trees are cut. Commercial logging uses heavy machinery, such as bulldozers, road graders, and log skidders, to remove cut trees and build roads, which is just as damaging to a forest overall asRead MoreEssay on Human Impact on the Environment1544 Words   |  7 Pages Human Impact on the Environment About three hundred years ago there was a definite spurt in the population of the human race. This was brought about with advancements in sanitation and technology, as well as a dramatic fall in the death rate. By around 1850 the worlds population had grown to about 1 billion and by 1930 it had risen to 2 billion. The current figure is around 6 billion and at this rate the United Nations estimates the population will be at about 9 billionRead MoreThe Effects Of Hunting On The World Of Hunting889 Words   |  4 Pagesof hunting, and with the impact of over population of deer in the U.S has made a big impact on our crops and forests, and how hunting can be good for your health with it providing exercise and healthy eating. I will now begin to skim the surface of these subjects. Hunting is a very controversial subject that has only become more sensitive now days. Some say that hunting is murder, destroying the environment due to the possibility of exceeding proper limitations. Most hunters are out there to bag aRead MoreMan s Quest Always Conquers, Outdoes And Destroys What Nature Has Created By Emily Dickinson903 Words   |  4 PagesAs the result of rapid industrialization and other human activities like chemical testing and deforestation, the Earth became loaded with pollutants. Pollution is a serious problem because it causes global warming, acid rain, famine, water shortage, disease, genetic mutation, and many different types of problems. Most environmental pollution is the result of human activities such as deforestation, automobile emissions, radioactive waste, fuel combustion, etc. in my essay, I will prove that man’sRead MoreShould Humans Have Change The Outcome Of Global Warming?918 Words   |  4 Pagestables a giant open system of gas op erated around them every second. Back then, this system was running fine, but presently, current humans find themselves in the dilemma of understanding how this ambiguous giant system works everyday to support their lives and even in fixing what may or may not be broken about it. The purpose of this study is to explore options that humans have to change the outcome of global warming by looking at what the primary causes are and what options are available by reviewing

Comparative Study on the Origin of Religion free essay sample

Since the early 1800s, there had been an ample amount of skeptics trying to account for the origin of religion. The basic question on everybody’s mind was where does religion come from? Some believed that people developed religion because they didn’t understand the forces of nature around them. Others believe that religion was created as a way of restrain people. In the 19th century, people were introduced to social science and anthropologists who once studied primitive culture were exposed to several theories on the origin of religion. Edward B Tylor was one of the first who developed a theory on religion. Max Muller was a German professor at Oxford University whose interest included Indian mythology and the study of religion. Another anthropologist was George Frazer who key contributions to religious anthropology was a religious encyclopedia. There are many explanations to the origin of religion, one of the most prominent being Edward B. Tylor’s theory of animism. This theory is considered the foundation of the physical evolution of religion; two other influential religious anthropologists, Max Muller and James Frazer, also based their explanations of the origin of religion on nature. All three religious anthropologists are similar in the sense that they traced the evolution of religion in an attempt to figure out the origin of it but differ in the way they approach the concept of religion. Edward B. Tylor developed the theory of animism to help explain the most rudimentary form of religion. Animism is defined as the belief that attributes souls and spirits to humans, plants, animals and other entities. Animistic religious beliefs are well-known among primitive societies who were â€Å"so low in culture as to have no religious conceptions what so ever† (Tylor). Tylor considered animism as the most primitive phase in the development of religion. He believed that the reflection of dreams and the observation of death caused primitive people to develop the idea of souls and spirits. Tylor thought that primitive people believed that everything in nature had a soul within it. He hypothesized that a belief in animism led to the formation of a more generalized god and, eventually, the creation of monotheism. Animism ultimately led to the evolution of religion in the minds of the people. It led them to take something so simple as nature and use it to explain the natural phenomenon in their environment. A conflicting theory that uses the concept of evolution is that of Max Muller. Another theory of the origin of religion was developed by Max Muller. He believed that people first developed religion from the observation of nature. According to his theory, primitive people became aware of regularity of the seasons, the tides and the phases of the moon. Their response to these forces in nature was to personalize them†(Hopfe and Woodward). They personalized them through linguistics. Muller believed that development of religion was a cause of confusion in language (Goldsmith). There seems to be a divide between Muller and Tylor over the nature of the origin o f religion. Max Muller believed that the answer to the sole origin of religion could be found in the past and a person can trace its origin in the linguistic remnants in the Indo-European languages. Tylor thought that implementing an ethnological approach would be more successful than studying languages for answers of the origin of religion. Evolution of religion is evident in Muller’s theory because â€Å"they personified the forces of nature, created myths to describe their activities, and eventually developed pantheons and religions around them† (Hopfe and Woodward). By developing religions and pantheons from identifying the forces in nature is a clear sign of the evolution of religion in the human mind set. Even though their theories are different, the idea of evolution of religion in the human mind is evident in both Muller and Tylor’s theory. Sir James George Frazer, a fellow religious anthropologist, began developing his own theories on religion. Frazer believed that humans used magic as a way to control nature and the events around them and when that failed, they turned to religion. They used religion to control the events for a while and when religion failed they turned to science. Frazer’s theories were similar to those of Tylor. They both believed that the human mind developed in the same way as that of physical evolution.. Even though Frazer took a similar approach to Tylor in tracing the origin of religion, he modified Tylor’s theory and replaced Tylor’s theory of animism with his idea of magic. A similarity between Frazer and Tylor is that they both believed that religion began from an intentional method of describing and making sense of a strange world. Frazer replaces the idea that religion explains nature by introducing science as a substitute. Frazer’s approach to tracing the origin of religion is similar to that of Tylor and Muller since all three traced the evolution of religion in an attempt to figure out its origin. Both Muller and Frazer’s theory are similar to Tylor’s theory since both trace the origin of religion through the evolution of it but differ in the way they interpret religion. All three of them seemed to miss a vital element of religion which is that no one who practices religion is doing so to explain how the world works. People use religion for several reasons. Some use it to give meaning to their lives while others use it to enforce social order. Maybe all three anthropologists didn’t miss this key component but rather didn’t know about it due to the rapid evolution of religion.